2. The properties of matter.
3. The structural organization of matter.
4. Levels of organization of natural knowledge.
Matter. The concept of "Matter" has many meanings. It is used to denote a tissue or another. Sometimes he gives an ironic sense, talking about "high matters". All of the objects and phenomena that surround man, despite their diversity, have one thing in common: they all exist outside human consciousness and independently of it, i.e., they are material. Users are constantly discovering new properties of natural bodies, produce a lot of not existing in the nature of things, therefore, matter is inexhaustible.
Matter neatorama and is indestructible exists eternally and infinitely varied in form of its manifestations. The material world is one. All its parts – from inanimate objects to living beings, from heavenly bodies to a person as a member of society – are somehow connected. I.e., all phenomena in the world is caused by natural material connections and interactions, causal relationships and laws of nature. In this sense, nothing is supernatural and opposed to matter. The human mind and consciousness is also determined by the physical processes occurring in the human brain, and are the highest form of reflection of the outside world.
The properties of matter.
Consistency – a characteristic feature of material reality. System is that in a certain way connected to each other and subject to applicable law. In Greek, the language system is a whole composed of parts, connection.
The systems are objectively existing and theoretical, or conceptual, i.e. existing only in the mind of man. The system is internal or external ordered set of interrelated and interacting elements. It captures the prevalence in the world of organization on chaotic changes. All material objects of the universe have internally orderly, systematic organization. Regularity implies the existence of natural relationships between elements of the system, which manifests itself in the form of laws of structural organization. Structural organization, i.e. consistency is the mode of existence of matter.
Structure is the internal division of the material existence. Internal order is present in all natural systems, resulting from interaction of solids and natural self-development of matter, the external characteristic of artificial systems created by man: technical, production, conceptual, informational, etc. the Origins of the idea of the structure of the universe belong to ancient philosophy (atomistika of Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius Kara).
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The concept of the structure of matter covers a macroscopic body, all the space of the system. From this point of view, the concept "structure" is that it exists in the form of an endless variety of holistic systems are interlinked, the ordering of the structure of each system. This structure is infinite in quantity and quality. Manifestations of structural infinity of matter are:
1) the inexhaustibility of the objects and processes of the microcosm.
2) the infinity of space and time.
3) the infinity of change and development processes.
Experientially available to humans only a finite region of the material world: in a scale from 10-15 to 1028 cm, and the time – up to 2*109 years.
Structural levels of organization of matter. In modern natural Sciences the structure of matter was formed in the scientific concept of systemic organization of the world. Structural levels of matter formed from any type and are characterized by a particular type of interaction between the constituent elements. Criteria for allocation of various structural levels are the following features:
1) spatial and temporal scales;
2) set the essential properties and laws change
3) the relative degree of difficulty encountered in the process of the historical development of matter in this region of the world.
Divide matter into structural levels is relative. In the available temporal and spatial scales, the structure of matter is manifested in its system of organization, the existence of a set of hierarchically interacting systems from elementary particles to the Metagalaxy.
Each of the spheres of objective reality involves a number of interrelated structural levels. Within these levels are the dominant coordinating relations, and between the two levels of subordination.
The hierarchy of structural elements of matter.Modern physics gradually, step by step, opened up a whole new world of physical objects – the microcosm or the world of microscopic particles, which are characterized mainly quantum properties. The behavior and properties of physical bodies consisting of microparticles and the components of the macrocosm, are described by classic physics. Two completely different objects microcosm and the macrocosm, you can add and megaworld the world of stars, galaxies and the Universe, located beyond Earth.
Matter distributed in the Universe is inhomogeneous. Structural elements of matter are combined into a holistic system of interaction in which the stronger and more important than the interactions of the elements of the system with its environment. In turn, the material system interact with each other in relationships of subordination and forming a hierarchy of natural systems. The main steps of this hierarchy are the microcosm, the macrocosm and megaworld.
Objective reality consists of three main areas: inorganic nature, wildlife, society. For example, in the classification of inorganic type emit elementary particles and fields, atomic nuclei, atoms, molecules, macroscopic bodies, geological formations.
It is possible to identify three structural levels:
1. megaworld – world of space (planets, solar systems, galaxies, Metagalaxy, and the unlimited extent to 1028 cm);
2. macrocosm – the world of stable forms and commensurate with the person variables (as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, oragnism, communities of organisms, i.e. a macroscopic body 10-6 to 107 cm);
3. microcosm – the world of atoms and elementary particles where not applicable, the principle of "consists of" (a region of the order of 10-15 cm).
In assessing the enormity of the scale of the Universe always there is a classic philosophical question: is the universe finite or infinite? The concept of infinity operate mainly mathematicians and philosophers. Physicists-experimenters, owning experimental methods and techniques and measurements always have a finite value of the measured values. The importance of science and especially modern physics lies in the fact that to date have received many quantitative characteristics of objects not only of macro - and microcosm, but megaera.
The spatial extent of our Universe and the sizes of the basic material entities, including micro-objects can be represented in the following table where the dimensions are given in meters (for simplicity, only the orders of the given numbers, i.e. approximate numbers within one order):
The radius of the cosmological horizon or visible Universe 1026 us
The diameter of our Galaxy 1021
Distance from Earth to the Sun 1011
The Diameter Of The Sun 109
The size of a person 100
The wavelength of visible light 10-6– 10-7
The size of viruses 10-6-10-8
The diameter of a hydrogen atom 10-10
The diameter of the atomic nucleus 10-15
The minimum distance available today our measurements 10-18
These data show that the ratio of the largest to the very small size available the present experiment, 44 per order. With the development of science this ratio steadily increased and will increase with the accumulation of new knowledge about the material world. The microcosm is the universe covered in scale so small that it is incommensurable with the dimensions of the human body. The behaviour of microscopic objects is mainly determined by quantum and thermal fluctuations (symmetry breaking).
The macrocosm is the universe considered in the scale more or less commensurate with the size of the human body (from live cells through the mountains). The behavior of macroscopic objects is well described by laws of classical mechanics and electrodynamics.
Megaworld is the universe covered in scale so large that it commensurate with the size of the human body. In megaworld dominates the gravitational interaction. In his substantial extent the laws of General relativity. The main structural elements of matter in megaworld are the galaxies and their clusters. Galaxy — a huge star system, consisting of billions of stars. Each star refers to some of the galaxy; in intergalactic space no stars.
On different structural levels of matter we are faced with particular manifestations of space-time relations, with different types of movement. A microcosm is described by the laws of quantum mechanics. In the macrocosm, the laws of classical mechanics. Megaworld is associated with the laws of relativity and relativistic cosmology.
Different levels of matter are characterized by different types of relationships:
1) the scale of 10-13 cm – strong interaction, integrity of the nucleus is provided by nuclear forces.
2) the integrity of atoms, molecules, macroscopic bodies is provided by electromagnetic forces.
3) in the cosmic scale of gravitational forces.
With the increase in the size decreases the interaction energy. The smaller the material, the more firmly connected among themselves their elements.
Within each of the structural levels, there is a relationship of subordination (molecular level enables atomic, and not Vice versa). Every higher form occurs on the basis of the lower, includes itself in shot form. This means essentially that the specificity of the higher forms of can be known only on the basis of the content higher in relation to her matter. Patterns new levels are not reducible to laws of levels on the basis of which they arose, and are leading for a given level of organization. In addition, illegal transfer of properties of higher levels of matter at low. Each level of matter has its qualitative specifics. In the higher level of matter of the lower forms of it presented in pure form and synthesized (shot) form.
Structural levels of matter interact with each other as part and whole. Interaction of part and whole is that one implies the other, they are United, and without each other can not exist. Does not happen whole with no parts and no parts out of the whole. Part gets its meaning only because of the whole just as the whole is the interaction of the parts. In the interaction of part and whole the decisive role belongs to the whole. However, this does not mean that parts are deprived of their specificity. Defining the role of the whole involves not passive, but active role of parts, aimed at ensuring normal life of the universe as a whole. Obeying in common the whole, the parts retain their relative independence and autonomy. On the one hand, they act as components of a whole, and on the other they are themselves a kind of holistic structures and systems.
Noteworthy is the fact that in biological systems occur parallel hierarchical relationships. For example, the body can simultaneously act in the roles of the individual and of the individual. The individual as a genetic unit included in the reproductive group, which carries out the breeding program, and in its composition in the population as a genetic education. Individual, organismic integrity with all its symbionts and parasites, is part of the family, opposed to other families, and together with them forms a ecological population. The existence of such Parallels reveals that the relationship between the structural elements of matter, especially at the biological level, can be quite diverse and are not reducible to a simple linear hierarchy. No wonder one of the laws of ecology States: "everything is connected with Everything".
Organic as a type of material system also has several levels of their organization:
1) precellular level includes DNA, RNA, nucleic acids, proteins;
2) cell – independently existing single-celled organisms;
3) multicellular – tissues and organs, functional systems (nervous, circulatory), organisms (plants and animals);
4) the body as a whole;
5) population (habitat) is a community of the same species that are linked by common gene pool (can interbreed and produce their own kind) a pack of wolves in the forest, school of fish in the lake, an anthill, a shrub; biocenosis – totality of the populations of organisms in which the waste products of one become conditions of life and existence, inhabiting an area of land or water. For example, in the forest population living in it plants, animals, fungi, lichens and microorganisms interact with each other, forming a complete system;
6) the biosphere is a global system of life, that part of the geographical environment (the lower atmosphere, upper lithosphere and hydrosphere), which is the habitat of living organisms, providing the necessary for their survival conditions (temperature, soil, etc.) formed by the interaction of ecological communities.
The common basis of life on the biological level is the organic metabolism (the exchange of matter, energy and information with the environment), which is shown on any of the highlighted sublevel:
1) at the level of organisms metabolism means the assimilation and dissimilation through intracellular reactions;
2) at the level of biocenosis consists of a chain of transformations of a substance, originally assimilated bodies-manufacturers through organisms, consumers of organisms and destroyers, belonging to different types;
3) at the level of the biosphere is the global cycle of matter and energy with the direct participation of factors on a cosmic scale.
In the framework of the biosphere begins to develop a special kind of material system, which is formed due to the ability of particular populations of living beings to work, the human community.
Social reality includes sub-levels: individual, family, group, team, social group, class, nation, state, system of States, society as a whole. Society exists only due to human activities. The structural level of social reality is ambiguous-linear relationships between them (for example, the level of the nation and state level). The interweaving of different levels of the structure of society does not mean the absence of order and structured society. In society it is possible to allocate fundamental structure – the main spheres of social life: material production, social, political, spiritual, etc., each with its own laws and structure. They are all in a certain sense, subordinated, structured and determine the genetic unity of society as a whole. Thus, any of the scopes objective reality is formed from a number of specific structural levels, which are in strict order in the composition of a particular field of reality. The transition from one region to another is associated with the complication and the increase in the educated many of the factors that maintain the integrity of systems, i.e. the evolution of material systems in the direction from simple to complex, from lower to higher.
Structural levels of matter.
Non-living nature Living nature
Inorganic priod Biological level, Social level
submicroelectronic biological small-molecule (precellular) individual
micro elementary cellular family
nuclear mikroorganisme groups
atomic multicellular large social groups
molecular the whole body state
macro-level Population (biotop) system States
meta-level habitat just Humanity in General
meaurement biosphere noosphere
Levels of organization of natural knowledge.Our knowledge of nature is accumulated and evolve not randomly, but in a strict sequence due to the hierarchy of levels of organization of matter. Nature is one in essence and division of knowledge about it on a separate natural subjects, such as chemistry or physics is often a quite conventional: physical ideas are reflected in the explanation of chemical processes, and the study of chemical transformations of substances in one another lead physicists to the discovery of new physical laws and phenomena, for example, the discovery of high temperature superconductivity or the discovery of solitons.
This is primarily due to the existence of a common for chemists and physicists of the research object - matter. But there are significant differences between these two Sciences: first, the range of objects in physics compared to chemistry more wide - from the microcosm to the scale of the Universe; second, the physical laws are more universal and applicable to a whole range of natural phenomena. This is evidenced by the development of a large number of related Sciences - physical chemistry, Geophysics, Biophysics, astrofiziki etc. In these Sciences, scientists are trying to explain chemical, biological and other natural phenomena and processes from the point of view of basic physical laws.
A description of the phenomena and processes of nature do phenomenological science. The purpose of such knowledge is the description of natural phenomena at the macroscopic level, i.e. at a level accessible to perception by human senses. However, modern experimental science, using a variety of research methods and the latest equipment: electron microscopes, NMR imagers, visatorussia spectroscopic equipment, including x-ray and other modern methods of research, allows you to significantly delve into the study of the subject – down from macro to micro levels.
There is a hierarchy of knowledge where complex phenomenon and processes are described in terms of a more simple and familiar.